The world of 'The Counterfeit Guest'

Funerals could be complex affairs in the late eighteenth century, although the rituals of grief, burial, and mourning were not as formally prescribed as in the nineteenth century. ‘Funeral arrangers’ or ‘furnishers’ managed the formal process for the upper and middle classes, with ‘undertakers’ performing this function at the lower end of the social scale. At the very least, proper provision had to be made for the body of the deceased. This could include an inner coffin, a lead shell, and an outer coffin of oak or mahogany. All three could be expensively decorated. The body usually remained at home until the day of the funeral, which might be 7-12 days after the death. Because embalming was unusual outside the aristocracy and royal family, coffins were sealed, and measures were taken to minimise the evidence of decay. The participation of women at funerals seems to have been varied in this period. Cassandra Austen did not attend her sister Jane’s funeral in 1817, but there are contemporary references to women mourners and even pall bearers in the 1780s and 90s. The pall was a cloth spread over the outer coffin when it was borne to the church and to the grave. Four ‘bearers’ held the corners, and where the deceased was a woman, her female friends might be chosen to perform this task.

John MacLeod (d. 1834) was deputy adjutant-general in the Royal Artillery in 1797, and was well known for his administrative efficiency, his kindly regard for the men under his command, and his tactful dealings with the often frustrating Ordinance Board.  In 1809 he commanded the artillery in the Walcheren expedition, and in 1814 he was appointed colonel-commandant of the regiment and director-general at Woolwich.  His son, Lt Col Charles MacLeod of the 43rd Foot, was killed leading the assault on the breach at Badajoz in April 1812.

A table of mourning regulations in France, published in 1765 prescribes a period of six months for parents, and one year and six weeks for a husband. Dress during mourning was also stipulated; for example, a widow should wear black wool for her ‘first mourning of six months, then black silk for a comparable period, which was designated as ‘second mourning’. During the final six weeks of ‘half mourning’ she should wear black and white. Women’s magazines of the 1790s described black satin and velvet as fashionable mourning fabrics. In wealthy establishments the servants as well as family members could go into mourning, and persons attending a funeral were expected to dress appropriately. Men often wore black cloaks, sashes, and hatbands, and women might wear black hoods.

The Royal Gunpowder Magazine at Purfleet was established by Act of Parliament in 1760, and much of the facility was built between 1763 and 1765. The magazine buildings were specially constructed to guard against sparks, facilitate ventilation, and limit the damage done in the event of an explosion. Safety practices were also employed. The civilian ‘powder men’ wore only the clothes and shoes provided; barrels were never rolled, but wheeled. As no artificial light was permitted inside the magazine buildings, polished copper plates were used to reflect sunshine from the open doors into dark corners when necessary. A garrison of artillery also protected the site. Purfleet stored as much as 52,000 barrels or 2,300 tons of gunpowder, and was the receiving house for all gunpowder manufactured or purchased by the government. This meant that shipments were coming into and out of Purfleet on a daily basis, and an accidental, but devastating explosion was a constant danger.

The British Museum was established by Act of Parliament in 1753 and was opened in 1759. Its first collections comprised books, manuscripts, and perhaps most importantly, the vast collection of Sir Hans Sloane, whose bequest of biological, botanical, and ethnological specimens, antiquities, books, and prints had prompted the museum’s creation. Other notable acquisitions during the eighteenth century included Sir William Hamilton’s classical antiquities, objects from the South Seas donated by Captain Cook, and the first Egyptian mummies, courtesy of William and Pitt Lethieullier. From the beginning, members of the public were admitted to the museum, free of charge, but only after their application had been accepted. A member of staff would then take them round the museum. The process of scrutiny and issuance of tickets could take several weeks, and some visitors complained that their eventual visit was hurried and uninformative. A private tour conducted by one of the trustees, therefore, would have been a privilege enjoyed by few, and it is to be lamented that Captain Holland did not fully appreciate this.

Captain Robert Holland serves on the staff of the Royal Artillery regiment. The regimental headquarters was the Warren, the arsenal at Woolwich, which was then a village approximately nine miles from London.

Unlike the rest of the Army, the artillery was part of a separate branch of government – the Ordnance department – which bore responsibility for armaments and the men who employed them. It was fitting, therefore, that the arsenal should reflect both functions. Beginning with a purchase of some 30 acres by the Crown in 1671, the arsenal grew gradually to serve four related purposes: manufacture and storage of weaponry, research into new weapons and equipment, accommodation of the officers and men of the regiment, and practical instruction for artillery and engineer cadets.

The last, laudable aim of insuring that commissioned officers were competent in such subjects as mining, gunnery, sapping, and bridge-building sometimes had to give way to necessity. When the French war began in 1793, the demand for officers was so keen that the public passing-out exams were dispensed with in favour of an internal exam, and even this was stopped in 1795.

Captain Holland, of course, would have been subject to the more rigorous process of qualification.

The name of the Finch estate recalls the Cistercian monastic order, whose adherents were known as ‘White Monks’ and ‘White Ladies’ during the Middle Ages because of the colour of their habits.

Founded in 1198, the order stressed personal spirituality and an austere lifestyle, typically involving manual labour. The first English abbey was established in 1228. Female religious received little encouragement from the order, but ‘unofficial’ convents of women following Cistercian customs sprang up in England and Wales during the thirteenth century.

Although White Ladies is not modelled upon a particular establishment, its location on the Suffolk coast should come as no surprise. The Cistercians usually chose remote sites for their houses, and one of the few fully incorporated nunneries was actually founded at Marham, Norfolk in 1251. All monastic houses in England and Wales either surrendered to or were suppressed by the Crown during the sixteenth century, and many of them – like White Ladies – passed into private hands.